Charles XI (Swedish: Karl XI) (24 November 1655old style – 5 April 1697old style[1]) was King of Sweden from 1660 until his death during the warlike Swedish empire era (1611–1711).
Charles was the only son of King Charles X of Sweden and Hedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp. He is generally regarded as having gotten a poor education by his governors, but soon after being crowned, he was forced out on military expeditions to save the recently acquired dominions from Danish troops in the Scanian War. Having successfully fought off the Danes, he returned to Stockholm and embarked to correct the neglected political, financial and economical situation in Sweden, and managed to keep the peace during his remaining 20 years as king. Changes in finance, commerce, the national armaments by sea and land, judicial procedure, church government and education emerged during this period.[2] Charles XI was succeeded by the only son that reached adulthood, Charles XII who made use of the well-trained army in battles through-out Europe.
Under guardian rule
Charles at the age of five, dressed as a Roman emperor. Painting by Ehrenstrahl
Charles was born in the palace at Stockholm in November 1655. His father, Charles X of Sweden, had left Sweden in July of that year, for a war against Poland. After several years of warfare, the king had returned in the winter of 1659, and gathered his family and the Riksdag of the Estates in Gothenburg. In middle January of 1660 however, he fell ill; in February he wrote down his last will and died. [3]
Charles the younger was left in the care of his education to the regents appointed by his father. His mother, Queen Hedvig Eleonora, was the formal president of the regency, but never had much to do with politics.[4] Charles XI attained his majority on 18 December, 1672, at the age of 17. He devoted himself mostly to sports and exercises, including the pursuit of his favourite pastime, bear-hunting, and appeared ignorant of the very rudiments of state-craft and almost illiterate. His difficulties, as described in contemporary sources, are evident signs of dyslexia, a disability that was poorly understood in those days.[5][6][7] According to many contemporary sources, the king was considered poorly educated and therefore not qualified to conduct himself effectively in foreign affairs.[8] Charles was thus dependent on his advisors and diplomats, mainly because he had no foreign language skills beside German and therefore could not interact with the foreign envoys, but also because he was ignorant of the world outside the borders of Sweden.[9]
The Italian writer Lorenzo Magalotti visited Stockholm in 1674 and described the King as virtually afraid of everything, uneasy to talk to foreigners, and not daring to look anyone in the face. Other traits was a deep devotion to religion: he was God fearing, frequently prayed kneeling and attended sermons. Magalotti otherwise described the king's main pursuits as hunting, the war, and jokes.[10][11]
Scanian war
The situation in Europe was shaky during this time, and the internal affairs of Sweden had financial problems. The guardians of Charles XI therefore decided on an alliance with France in 1671. This would ensure that Sweden would not be isolated in case of a war, and of financial improvement thanks to French subsidies. [12] France attacked Dutch forces in 1672, and by the spring of 1674 Sweden was forced to take part by directing forces towards Germany, under the lead Karl Gustav Wrangel.[13]
Denmark was an ally to Germany, and it was evident that Sweden was on the verge to yet another war against Denmark. An attempted remedy was made by chancellor Nils Brahe, who in the spring of 1675 traveled to Copenhagen to try and get the Danish princess Ulrika Eleonora engaged to the Swedish king. In mid June 1675 the engagement was officially proclaimed. However, when news arrived about the Swedish defeat in the Battle of Fehrbellin, Danish King Christian declared war on Sweden in September. [14]
The Swedish Privy Council continued its internal feuds, and the king was forced to rule without them. [15] The 20-year old king was inexperienced and considered ill-served amidst what has been called the anarchy in the nation and dedicated the autumn in his newly-formed camp in Scania to arm the Swedish nation for struggle in the Scanian War. The Swedish soldiers in Scania were outnumbered and outequipped to the Danish soldiers, and in May of 1676, Danish troops invaded Scania, taking Landskrona, Helsingborg, and were now marching through Bohuslän towards Halmstad. The King had to grow up quickly: he suddenly found himself alone and under great pressure. [2][16]
The victory at the Battle of Halmstad (17 August 1676), when Charles and his commander-in-chief Simon Grundel-Helmfelt defeated a Danish division, was the first gleam of good luck for him. Charles then continued south through Scania, and arrived on the tableland of the flooded Kävlinge River, near Lund, on November 11. The Danish army and their commander Christian V of Denmark himself was positioned on the other side and Charles could not cross the flooded river. His troops had to wait for weeks until it froze, and on 4 December he could finally cross it to fight the Battle of Lund. [2] The Battle of Lund was, relative to the number engaged, one of the bloodiest engagements of modern times. More than half the combatants (8,357, of whom 3,000 were Swedes) actually perished on the battle-field. [2][17][18] All the Swedish commanders showed ability, but the chief glory of the day have been attributed to Charles XI and his fighting spirit. The battle proved to be a decisive battle for the rule of the Scanian lands, and it has also been described as the most significant event for Charles personality, and he would commemorate the date for the rest of his life. [19][20]
In the following year, Charles with 9,000 men routed 12,000 Danes at the Battle of Landskrona. This proved to be the last pitched battle of the war, in September 1678 Christian V evacuated his army back to Zealand. In 1679 Louis XIV of France dictated the terms of a general pacification, and Charles XI, who is said to have bitterly resented "the insufferable tutelage" of the French king, was forced at last to acquiesce in a peace which at least left his empire practically intact. [2]
Post-war actions
Charles devoted the rest of his life to avoid further warfare, which he made by gaining larger independence in foreign affairs, a stabilization of the economy and a reorganization of the military. His remaining 20 years at the throne was the longest peace time of the Swedish Empire (1611–1718).[21]
In the first years he was greatly assisted by his the man who had become his trusted primary minister, Johan Göransson Gyllenstierna (1635–1680). Some sources say the king was basically dependent on Gyllenstierna, [22] but Gyllenstierna at the very least had a big influence on him. His sudden death in 1680 opened up the road to the monarch, and many men tried to get close to the king so they could take his place. [23]
Financial restoration
Sweden's weak economy had suffered during the war and was now in a deep crisis. Charles assembled the Riksdag of the Estates in October of that year (1680). The assembly has been described as one of the most important held by the Riksdag of the Estates.[24] Here the king finally pushed through the reduction ordeal, something that had been discussed in the Riksdag since 1650. It meant that any land or object previously owned by the crown and lent or given away — including counties, baronies and lordships — could be recovered. It affected many prominent persons of the nobility class, some of which were ruined. One of them was the former guardian and Lord Chief Justice Magnus De La Gardie, who among many other estates had to return the extravagant 248 room large Läckö Castle.[25] The reduction process involved the examination of every title deed in the kingdom — including the dominions — and it resulted in the complete readjustment of the nation's finances. [26][2][27]
Absolutism
Another important decision made during the assembly was that of the Swedish Privy Council. Since 1634, it had been mandatory for the king to take the advice of this council. During the Scanian War, the members of the council had internal feuds, and the king more or less ruled without listening to their advice. Now at the assembly of 1680, he asked the estates whether he was still bound to the council, to which the estates gave him his desired reply: he was not bound by anyone other than himself, and thereby the absolute monarchy was formally established in Sweden.[28] The Riksdag of the Estates confirmed his power in 1693 by officially proclaiming that the king was the sole ruler of Sweden.[29]
Military restructure
In the 1682 assembly of the Riksdag of the Estates, the king put forth his suggestion for a military reform: Each of the lands of Sweden were to have 1,200 soldiers to dispose at all times; and two farms were to provide accommodations for one soldier. His soldiers were known as Caroleans and were trained to be well trained and skilled, and to prefer attack to defense. Savaging and looting was strictly forbidden. The soldier-huts around the country were the most visible part of the new Swedish allotment system. However, Charles also modernized the military techniques and sent many officers to study abroad to acquire knowledge, and worked to improve the over-all skill and knowledge of the officers. [30][31]
The Swedish Royal Navy was improved by the founding of the naval base Karlskrona in 1680; it became the stronghold of the navy and has remained so. The naval base is today a UNESCO World Heritage Site. [30][31]
Assimilation of the newest dominions
Charles felt it very important to assimilate the new Swedish dominions: Scania, Blekinge and Halland, in southern Sweden, Bohuslän, Jämtland, in southwest Sweden, and the island of Gotland. Some assimilation-policies were that all books in Danish or Norwegian were to be banned (breaking the promise made at the Treaty of Roskilde), that sermons were to be conducted in Swedish, and that all new priests and teachers were to come from Sweden.[32][33]
The king had seen bitter resentment from the Scanian peasants during the Scanian War and was particularly tough on that province. The guerrilla Snapphane-movement in northern Scania had attacked his soldiers and stolen his money. They had also enjoyed a strong support in local villages. Charles remained sceptical about the Scanian inhabitants throughout his life. He did not allow soldiers from Scania in his regiment: the 1,200 solders that were to be stationed in Scania had to be recruited from more northern provinces. He also advocated rough treatment of the inhabitants, and the first Governor-General of Scania, his trusted aid Johan Gyllenstierna (governor-general 1679-1680) was notably fierce in his treatment of the locals; it became more lenient with Rutger von Ascheberg (governor-general 1680-1693) [32][33]
The assimilation was not as strongly implemented on the dominions in Germany (Swedish Pomerania, the Archdiocese of Bremen and Verden) and the Balticum (Swedish Estonia and Swedish Livonia). In Germany, he found himself being opposed by the estates there, and he was also bound by the law of the German emperor and the peace treaty. In Balticum, the power structure was completely different, with a German-descending nobility that used serfs, something Charles strongly resented wanted to abolish but was unable to. Lastly, Kexholm County and Swedish Ingria were sparsely populated and not of any greater interest. [32][33]
Church
Charles was a devoted Lutheran Christian. In February 1686, a church law was put forth on his initiative. The church order declared that the king was ruler of the Church in the same way that he ruled the country and God ruled the world. Attending sermons on Sunday was made obligatory: ordinary people found walking around on the streets during that time risked being arrested. Three years later, he declared it obligatory for all commoners to learn to read a catechism, written by archbishop Olov Svebilius and then-bishop Haqvin Spegel, so that they would understand the "magnificence of God". [34][35]
Charles then encouraged the production of a hymnal (Psalmbok) to be printed and distributed to the churches (completed 1693), and a new print of the Bible that was completed in 1703 and named after his successor: Charles XII Bible.[34][35]
Family matters
Queen Ulrika Eleonora, Charles' wife
On 6 May 1680, Charles married Ulrike Eleonora (1656–1693), daughter of King Frederick III of Denmark (1609-1670). He had previously been engaged to his cousin Juliana of Hesse-Eschwege, but the engagement had been broken and he married Ulrike after the war as a part of the peace treaty.
Ulrike Eleonora was beautiful and kind, but she always had to stand back to Charles' mother. The old Queen's was always mentioned before hers, and Ulrika was soft and did not take up the fight. [36][2] She was completely different from the king: he enjoyed hunting and riding, she enjoyed reading and art; and her softness was a stark contrast to her husbands roughness. Her Danish background made her situation more difficult. While Charles was away to inspect his troops or pursuing his interest, she was often lonely and sad.[37]
She bore him seven children, of which three survived him: a son Charles XII (1682-1718), and two daughters, Hedwig Sophia (1681-1708), duchess of Holstein-Gottorp and grandmother of Tsar Peter III, and Ulrika Eleonora (1688-1741), who ultimately succeeded her brother on the Swedish throne. Ulrika (the older) was sickly, and the many child births eventually broke her. When she became seriously ill in 1693, Charles finally dedicated his time and care to her. Her death in July that year shook him deeply and he never fully recovered. [38][2]
Death
Charles XI had complained about stomach pains since 1694. In the summer of 1696, he asked his doctors for an opinion on the pain that had gotten continuously worse, but they had no cure for it. He continued his schedule as normal, but in February 1697 the pain became to strong and he had to return to Stockholm where the doctors discovered he a big hard lump in his stomach. There was little they could do. He died on 5 April 1697, in his forty-first year. An autopsy showed cancer had spread in the entire abdominal cavity.[39]
Legacy
Charles XI has sometimes been described in Sweden as the greatest of all the Swedish kings, unduly eclipsed by his father Charles X and his son Charles XII.[2] In the first half of the 20th century, the view of him had changed, and he was regarded as dependent, uncertain, and easily influenced by others.[40] In the most recent book, Rystads biography from 2003, the king is again mainly characterized as a strong-willed shaper of Sweden through economical reforms and an achievement of financial and military stability and strength.[41]
Charles XI is commemorated on the 500-kronor bill. His portrait is taken from one of Ehrenstrahl's paintings, possibly the one displayed on this page. The reason why the king is on the bill is because the Bank of Sweden was founded during Charles' reign in 1668.[42]
Ancestors
Notes and references
- ^ This article uses the Julian calendar, that was used in Sweden until 1700 (see Swedish calendar for more info). In the Gregorian calendar, Charles was born December 4, 1655, and died April 15, 1697.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910-1911) [1]
- ^ Åberg (1958)
- ^ Rystad (2003), p.26
- ^ Nationalencyclopedin, article Karl XII
- ^ Rystad (2003), p.23
- ^ Åberg (1958) gives examples: he would start with the last letter when reading words, and would spell faton instead of afton, etc
- ^ Upton, Anthony F. (1998). Charles XI and Swedish Absolutism, 1660-1697. Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0521573904, p. 91: "There was a widespread contemporary impression that the king was poorly qualified and ineffective in foreign affairs [...] The Danish minister, M. Scheel, reported to his king how Charles XI seemed embarrassed by questions, kept his eyes down and was taciturn [...] The French diplomat, Jean Antoine de Mesmes, comte d’Avaux, described him as 'a prince with few natural talents', so obsessed with getting money out of his subjects that he 'does not concern himself much with foreign affairs'. The Dane, Jens Juel, made a similar comment."
- ^ Upton, p. 91.
- ^ Rystad (2003) p. 37
- ^ Åberg (1958), pp.63-65
- ^ Åberg (1959) pp.50-53
- ^ Åberg, p.66
- ^ Åberg (1958), pp.71-72
- ^ Åberg (1958), pp.72-74
- ^ Åberg (1958), pp.75-76
- ^ Åberg (1958, pp.77-79
- ^ Rystad (2003), p. 95, estimates that 8,000-9,000 men fell out of 20,000
- ^ Åberg (1958) p.81
- ^ Rystad (2003) p.97
- ^ Nationalencyklopedin, article Karl XI
- ^ Åberg (1958),pp.106-107
- ^ Rystad (2003) p.165
- ^ Rystad (2003), p.167
- ^ Rystad (2003) p.181
- ^ Åberg (1958), pp 93-94
- ^ Trager, James (1979). The People's Chronology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 256. ISBN 0-03-017811-8.
- ^ Åberg (1958), p.111
- ^ Åberg (1958), p.190
- ^ a b Åberg (1958) pp.125-134
- ^ a b Rystad (2003), pp.241-265
- ^ a b c Åberg (1958), pp.135-146
- ^ a b c Rystad (2003) pp.307-344
- ^ a b Åberg (1958), pp.157-166
- ^ a b Rystad (2003) pp.345-357
- ^ Rystad (2003), pp.282-283
- ^ Rystad (2003), pp.287-289
- ^ Rystad (2003), pp.287-289
- ^ Rystad (2003), pp.368-369
- ^ Back-cover of Åberg (1958)
- ^ Back-cover of Rystad (2003)
- ^ (Swedish) http://www.riksbank.se/templates/Page.aspx?id=9100 500-kronorssedeln] - From Bank of Sweden official site. Accessed September 2, 2008
- Åberg, Alf: Karl XI, Wahlström & Widstrand 1958 (reprinted by ScandBook, Falun 1994, ISBN 9146166238 )
- Lindqvist, Herman: Historien om Sverige
- Rystad, Göran: Karl XI / En biografi, AiT Falun AB 2001. ISBN 918944227-X
- Upton, Anthony F. Charles XI and Swedish Absolutism, 1660-1697. Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0521573904.
- This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
Further reading
- Åberg, A., "The Swedish army from Lützen to Narva", in Michael Roberts (ed.), Sweden's Age of Greatness, 1632-1718 (1973).
See also
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